Home Assignment for MA in Political Science 3rd Sem 2026 MODERN POLITICAL ANALYSIS PGPS S3-01 (DSC)

MASTER OF ARTS (M.A.) IN POLITICAL SCIENCE

Course Name: Modern Political Analysis

Course Code: PGPS S3-01 (DSC)

Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University

Study Centre / College Name: ________________________

Date of Submission: 07 February 2026

Question 1: Describe the nature of traditional approaches.

Answer:

The traditional approaches in political science refer to the early methods and perspectives used to study politics before the emergence of modern scientific and empirical techniques. These approaches dominated the discipline up to the middle of the twentieth century and were largely influenced by philosophy, history, law, and moral reasoning. The primary concern of traditional approaches was the study of the state, political institutions, and political ideas, rather than the actual behavior of individuals and groups in society.

One of the most significant characteristics of traditional approaches is their normative nature. These approaches focus on ideals, values, and ethical judgments, emphasizing what politics ought to be rather than what it actually is. Political thinkers such as Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau were deeply concerned with concepts like justice, liberty, equality, sovereignty, and the good state. Their writings aimed at prescribing moral standards and principles of good governance. As a result, traditional political analysis often combined political theory with moral philosophy.

Another important feature of traditional approaches is their institutional orientation. Politics was mainly understood as the study of formal institutions such as the constitution, legislature, executive, judiciary, and administrative systems. The state was regarded as the central unit of political analysis. Scholars focused on the legal structure, powers, and functions of these institutions. Informal political processes such as political parties, pressure groups, public opinion, and political behavior were largely ignored.

Traditional approaches are also historical and descriptive in nature. Political phenomena were explained with reference to historical events, legal documents, constitutions, and classical texts. Scholars relied heavily on historical narratives to understand political developments. While this method provided detailed descriptions and deep insights into political institutions, it lacked systematic comparison and analytical rigor.

Another defining characteristic of traditional approaches is the absence of scientific and empirical methodology. These approaches did not use tools such as statistical analysis, surveys, experiments, or quantitative data. Concepts were often abstract and not clearly defined, making them difficult to verify or test. Due to this limitation, traditional approaches were criticized for being subjective and speculative.

Despite these limitations, traditional approaches made a significant contribution to the development of political science. They laid the foundation for important political concepts such as sovereignty, democracy, constitutionalism, rule of law, rights, and citizenship. The study of political philosophy enriched political thought and helped shape modern political systems.

However, with the growth of mass democracy, expansion of political participation, and increasing complexity of modern societies, traditional approaches were found inadequate to explain real political behavior. This led to the rise of modern approaches such as behavioralism, systems theory, and empirical political analysis.

In conclusion, traditional approaches to political analysis are normative, institutional, historical, and descriptive in nature. Although they lack scientific rigor and empirical techniques, they remain important for understanding political ideas, moral values, and the evolution of political institutions. These approaches continue to provide a strong theoretical foundation for modern political analysis.

Question 2: Discuss Gabriel Almond’s structural functional theory.

Answer:

Gabriel Almond’s structural functional theory is one of the most influential contributions to modern political analysis. The theory emerged during the behavioural revolution in political science in the mid-twentieth century. This period marked a shift from traditional, descriptive, and institutional approaches towards more scientific, empirical, and comparative methods. Almond developed the structural functional approach to provide a common framework for analysing political systems across different societies, including both developed and developing countries.

The core idea of structural functional theory is that every political system is composed of various structures which perform specific functions necessary for the survival and stability of the system. Almond defined a political system as a set of interactions that perform the function of authoritative allocation of values in society. Instead of concentrating only on formal institutions such as legislatures and courts, Almond broadened the scope of political analysis by including informal institutions and processes as well.

Political structures refer to the organisations, institutions, and patterns through which political activities are carried out. These structures include legislatures, executives, judiciaries, bureaucracies, political parties, pressure groups, interest groups, and even traditional authorities. Almond argued that while political structures may differ in form and composition from one country to another, the functions they perform remain largely similar. This distinction between structure and function is central to his theory and allows for meaningful comparison among political systems.

Almond classified political functions into two broad categories: input functions and output functions. Input functions are those processes through which demands and support are generated and communicated to the political system. These include political socialization and recruitment, interest articulation, interest aggregation, and political communication. Political socialization involves the process by which individuals acquire political values and attitudes, while political recruitment refers to the selection of individuals for political roles.

Interest articulation refers to the expression of demands by individuals and groups, often through pressure groups, political parties, or social movements. Interest aggregation involves the combination of various demands into coherent policy alternatives, usually performed by political parties. Political communication ensures the flow of information between citizens and government institutions, enabling effective functioning of the political system.

Output functions relate to how the political system responds to demands and makes authoritative decisions. These include rule-making, rule-application, and rule-adjudication. Rule-making refers to the formulation of laws and policies by legislative bodies. Rule-application involves the implementation of these laws by the executive and administrative agencies. Rule-adjudication refers to the interpretation and enforcement of laws by judicial institutions.

A major strength of Almond’s structural functional theory is its comparative value. By focusing on functions rather than specific institutions, the theory makes it possible to study political systems of different types within a single analytical framework. This approach is especially useful for analysing political systems in developing countries, where political institutions may not resemble those of Western democracies.

Almond also emphasised the role of political culture in shaping how political structures perform their functions. Political culture influences citizens’ attitudes towards authority, participation, and legitimacy, thereby affecting the overall functioning of the political system. This integration of political culture adds depth to structural functional analysis.

However, the theory has been criticised for being overly abstract and for neglecting issues such as power relations, conflict, and inequality. Critics argue that it tends to emphasise stability and system maintenance while underestimating political change and revolution. Despite these criticisms, Almond’s structural functional theory remains a foundational framework in modern political analysis.

In conclusion, Gabriel Almond’s structural functional theory provides a systematic and comprehensive method for understanding political systems. By analysing political structures and their functions, the theory broadened the scope of political science and significantly contributed to comparative political analysis.

Question 3: Examine the basic concepts of Karl Deutsch’s communication theory. Explain any four criticisms levelled against the communication theory.

Answer:

Karl Deutsch’s communication theory is an important contribution to modern political analysis and forms a significant part of the systems approach to politics. Deutsch viewed political systems as networks of communication and control, similar to cybernetic systems. According to him, the functioning, stability, and efficiency of a political system largely depend on how information is transmitted, received, processed, and used for decision-making. His theory shifted the focus of political analysis from institutions to processes of communication.

One of the basic concepts of Karl Deutsch’s theory is the idea of the political system as a communication system. Deutsch argued that a political system operates through the continuous flow of information between society and government. Information includes demands, support, feedback, and decisions. Effective communication enables governments to respond to public needs and maintain stability, while poor communication leads to policy failure and instability.

Another key concept is feedback. Feedback refers to the information received by decision-makers about the consequences of their actions and policies. Positive feedback helps governments understand whether their decisions are being accepted by society, while negative feedback indicates dissatisfaction or resistance. According to Deutsch, feedback is essential for self-regulation and learning within a political system.

Deutsch also emphasized the concept of control. Control refers to the ability of a political system to guide behaviour and maintain order through communication. This control is achieved not merely through force, but through information, persuasion, and legitimacy. The more effective the communication channels, the better the system’s capacity to exercise control and achieve collective goals.

Another important concept is load and capability. Load refers to the volume of demands and pressures placed on a political system, while capability refers to the system’s ability to respond effectively to these demands. When the load exceeds the system’s capability, the political system becomes stressed and may face instability or breakdown.

Deutsch also highlighted the role of memory and learning in political systems. Political systems store past experiences, decisions, and outcomes, which help them learn and adapt over time. A system that learns effectively from past mistakes is more capable of maintaining stability and achieving development.

Despite its significance, Karl Deutsch’s communication theory has been criticised on several grounds. One major criticism is that the theory is overly mechanical and technical in nature. Critics argue that comparing political systems to machines or cybernetic systems ignores the emotional, ideological, and value-based aspects of politics.

A second criticism is that the theory underestimates the role of power and conflict. Deutsch focuses mainly on communication and information flow, but pays insufficient attention to power struggles, class conflict, and economic inequalities that shape political outcomes.

The third criticism is that the theory assumes a high level of rationality among political actors. In reality, political decisions are often influenced by emotions, biases, and irrational behaviour, which the communication model fails to adequately explain.

A fourth criticism is that the theory has limited applicability in developing countries. Many developing societies lack effective communication networks, political awareness, and institutional capacity. Therefore, the assumptions of Deutsch’s theory do not always match political realities in such contexts.

In conclusion, Karl Deutsch’s communication theory provides valuable insights into the role of information, feedback, and communication in political systems. Although the theory has certain limitations and criticisms, it remains an important framework for understanding political stability, decision-making, and system performance in modern political analysis.

Question 4: Explain the different forms of power.

Answer:

Power is one of the most fundamental concepts in political science and plays a central role in political analysis. It refers to the ability of an individual or group to influence, control, or determine the actions and behaviour of others. Power exists in all political systems and operates at different levels of society. Political thinkers have explained power in various ways, highlighting its diverse forms and manifestations. Understanding the different forms of power is essential for analysing political processes, authority, governance, and social relations.

One important form of power is political power. Political power refers to the authority exercised by the state or government to make binding decisions for society. It is expressed through institutions such as the legislature, executive, and judiciary. Political power enables governments to frame laws, implement policies, and enforce rules. It is generally considered legitimate when it is exercised according to constitutional and legal norms. In democratic systems, political power is derived from the consent of the people through elections.

Another significant form is economic power. Economic power arises from control over economic resources such as land, capital, industry, and wealth. Individuals, corporations, and groups that possess substantial economic resources can influence political decisions and public policies. Economic power often shapes political outcomes by financing political parties, influencing legislation, and controlling employment opportunities. In many societies, economic power is closely linked with political power, leading to the dominance of elites.

Social power is another important form of power that operates within society. Social power refers to the ability of social groups or institutions to influence attitudes, beliefs, and behaviour. This form of power is often exercised by religious institutions, educational systems, social organizations, and cultural traditions. Social power plays a crucial role in shaping social norms, values, and identities, thereby indirectly influencing political behaviour.

Ideological power is closely related to social power and refers to the capacity to shape ideas, beliefs, and worldviews. Ideology influences how people perceive political reality and understand concepts such as justice, equality, and authority. Political leaders, intellectuals, media, and educational institutions often exercise ideological power. When a particular ideology becomes dominant, it legitimises existing power structures and reduces resistance.

Coercive power is another major form of power and is based on the use or threat of force. This form of power is exercised through institutions such as the military, police, and security agencies. Coercive power ensures compliance with laws and maintains public order. Although it is necessary for maintaining stability, excessive use of coercive power can lead to authoritarianism and suppression of individual freedoms.

Legitimate power is power that is recognised and accepted as rightful by the people. It is based on established laws, traditions, and social norms. Max Weber identified three types of legitimate authority: traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational. Legitimate power ensures obedience without the constant use of force and contributes to political stability.

Informational power has become increasingly important in modern political systems. It refers to control over information, communication, and knowledge. Media, digital platforms, and technology play a crucial role in shaping public opinion and political discourse. Those who control information can influence political agendas, electoral outcomes, and policy decisions.

In conclusion, power exists in multiple forms and operates through political, economic, social, ideological, coercive, legitimate, and informational means. These forms of power are interconnected and often reinforce one another. Understanding the different forms of power helps in analysing political authority, governance, conflict, and social change. Power is not static but dynamic, and its distribution determines the nature and functioning of political systems.

Question 5: Explain the concept of renewable and non-renewable resources. Highlight the need to shift towards renewable resources.

Answer:

Natural resources play a crucial role in the survival and development of human society. They provide the raw materials and energy required for economic growth, industrialisation, and improvement of living standards. On the basis of their availability and ability to regenerate, natural resources are broadly classified into renewable and non-renewable resources. Understanding the distinction between these two types of resources is essential for sustainable development and environmental protection.

Renewable resources are those resources that can be naturally replenished or regenerated over a relatively short period of time. These resources are generally considered sustainable if used carefully and responsibly. Examples of renewable resources include solar energy, wind energy, water, forests, biomass, and geothermal energy. Renewable resources are continuously available in nature and can be used repeatedly without the risk of permanent depletion, provided their rate of consumption does not exceed their rate of regeneration.

Among renewable resources, energy sources such as solar and wind power have gained increasing importance in recent years. Solar energy is derived from the sun and can be harnessed using solar panels, while wind energy is generated through wind turbines. Hydropower, produced from flowing water, is another important renewable energy source. Forests and agricultural resources also fall under renewable resources, as they can regenerate through natural growth cycles when managed sustainably.

Non-renewable resources, on the other hand, are those resources that are available in limited quantities and cannot be replenished within a human lifespan. These resources take millions of years to form and once exhausted, cannot be easily replaced. Examples of non-renewable resources include coal, petroleum, natural gas, minerals, and fossil fuels. These resources have been the backbone of industrial development and modern civilisation, especially since the industrial revolution.

Fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas are the most widely used non-renewable resources. They are extensively used for electricity generation, transportation, and industrial production. However, their excessive use has led to serious environmental problems such as air pollution, global warming, climate change, and depletion of natural reserves. The finite nature of non-renewable resources poses a major challenge to long-term economic and environmental sustainability.

The need to shift towards renewable resources has become increasingly urgent in the contemporary world. One of the primary reasons for this shift is the rapid depletion of non-renewable resources. As global demand for energy continues to rise due to population growth and industrial expansion, the existing reserves of fossil fuels are being exhausted at an alarming rate. This threatens future energy security and economic stability.

Another important reason for shifting towards renewable resources is environmental protection. The use of non-renewable resources, particularly fossil fuels, releases large amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This contributes to climate change, rising global temperatures, melting glaciers, and extreme weather events. Renewable energy sources are cleaner and produce little or no pollution, making them environmentally sustainable alternatives.

Renewable resources also promote sustainable development by ensuring intergenerational equity. Sustainable development aims to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. By adopting renewable resources, societies can reduce environmental degradation and preserve natural resources for the future.

Moreover, the shift towards renewable resources can generate employment opportunities and promote technological innovation. The renewable energy sector has the potential to create jobs in manufacturing, installation, maintenance, and research. It also encourages investment in green technologies and strengthens energy independence, especially for developing countries.

In conclusion, renewable and non-renewable resources differ significantly in terms of availability, sustainability, and environmental impact. While non-renewable resources have played a vital role in economic development, their continued exploitation poses serious environmental and economic risks. The urgent need to shift towards renewable resources lies in ensuring environmental protection, energy security, sustainable development, and a better future for coming generations.