Home Assignment for MA in Political Science 3rd Sem 2026 HUMAN RIGHTS: INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS PGPS S3-03 (DSC)

MASTER OF ARTS (M.A.) IN POLITICAL SCIENCE

Course Name: HUMAN RIGHTS: INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

Course Code: PGPS S3-03 (DSC)

Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University

Study Centre / College Name: ________________________

Date of Submission: 07 February 2026

Question 1: Examine the role of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in protecting the rights of refugees.

Answer:

The problem of refugees has become one of the most serious humanitarian challenges in the contemporary world. Armed conflicts, political instability, persecution, human rights violations, and natural disasters have forced millions of people to flee their homes and seek refuge in other countries. In this context, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees plays a crucial role in protecting the rights and dignity of refugees across the globe.

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was established in 1950 by the United Nations General Assembly with the primary objective of providing international protection to refugees and finding durable solutions to their problems. Initially, UNHCR was created to assist refugees displaced in Europe after the Second World War. Over time, its mandate has expanded to include refugees, asylum seekers, internally displaced persons, and stateless persons worldwide.

One of the most important roles of UNHCR is to provide international protection to refugees. International protection involves ensuring that refugees are not forcibly returned to countries where their lives or freedoms would be threatened, a principle known as non-refoulement. UNHCR works closely with governments to ensure that this principle is respected and that refugees are allowed to seek asylum and receive protection in host countries.

UNHCR also plays a significant role in safeguarding the basic human rights of refugees. Refugees are often vulnerable to exploitation, discrimination, and abuse. UNHCR advocates for their rights to safety, dignity, access to food, shelter, healthcare, education, and employment. It monitors the treatment of refugees and intervenes when their rights are violated, thereby acting as a guardian of refugee rights.

Another important function of UNHCR is providing humanitarian assistance to refugees. This includes emergency relief such as food, clean water, shelter, medical care, and sanitation. In refugee camps and settlements, UNHCR works with partner organisations to ensure acceptable living conditions and protect refugees from health risks and insecurity. Special attention is given to vulnerable groups such as women, children, the elderly, and persons with disabilities.

UNHCR is also actively involved in ensuring access to education and livelihoods for refugees. Education is essential for the development and future prospects of refugee children, while livelihood opportunities help refugees become self-reliant and reduce dependency on aid. By promoting education and skill development, UNHCR helps refugees rebuild their lives with dignity.

A key role of UNHCR is to find durable solutions to refugee problems. These solutions include voluntary repatriation, local integration, and resettlement to a third country. Voluntary repatriation involves assisting refugees to return safely and voluntarily to their home countries when conditions improve. Local integration allows refugees to settle permanently in the host country, while resettlement involves transferring refugees to another country willing to accept them.

UNHCR also plays an important role in shaping international refugee law and policy. It promotes the implementation of international legal instruments such as the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol. UNHCR provides legal guidance to states, helps develop asylum systems, and builds the capacity of governments to manage refugee situations in accordance with international standards.

In addition, UNHCR raises global awareness about refugee issues and mobilises international support. It works with governments, international organisations, non-governmental organisations, and civil society to coordinate refugee responses. By advocating burden-sharing and international cooperation, UNHCR seeks to ensure that no single country bears the responsibility of hosting refugees alone.

Despite its significant contributions, UNHCR faces several challenges such as inadequate funding, political resistance, and increasing numbers of displaced persons. However, its role remains indispensable in protecting refugee rights and addressing humanitarian crises.

In conclusion, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees plays a vital role in protecting the rights of refugees through international protection, humanitarian assistance, advocacy, and durable solutions. In a world marked by conflict and displacement, UNHCR stands as a key institution committed to upholding human dignity, human rights, and international solidarity.

Question 2: Discuss any four problems experienced by elderly persons.

Answer:

The elderly population constitutes an important and growing section of society. Advances in healthcare and living standards have increased life expectancy across the world, leading to a rise in the number of elderly persons. However, ageing is often accompanied by several social, economic, physical, and psychological challenges. Elderly persons frequently face multiple problems that affect their dignity, security, and quality of life. Among the many difficulties experienced by older people, four major problems are health-related issues, economic insecurity, social isolation, and neglect or abuse.

One of the most serious problems faced by elderly persons is declining health and inadequate access to healthcare. Ageing naturally brings physical weakness, chronic illnesses, and reduced immunity. Many elderly people suffer from diseases such as arthritis, diabetes, heart problems, vision and hearing impairments, and mental health conditions like dementia and depression. Access to proper healthcare is often limited due to high medical costs, lack of geriatric care facilities, and inadequate health insurance. In developing countries, healthcare systems are often ill-equipped to address the specific needs of the elderly, making them more vulnerable to illness and neglect.

Economic insecurity is another major problem experienced by elderly persons. Many older people depend on pensions, savings, or family support for their livelihood. However, pensions are often insufficient to meet rising living and healthcare expenses. Those who worked in the informal sector may not have any social security benefits at all. Economic dependence reduces the autonomy of elderly persons and exposes them to poverty, insecurity, and exploitation. Financial stress also affects their self-esteem and sense of dignity.

Social isolation and loneliness constitute a significant problem for elderly persons, particularly in modern societies. Changes in family structures, such as the shift from joint families to nuclear families, have weakened traditional support systems for the elderly. Migration of younger family members for education or employment often leaves elderly parents alone. The loss of a spouse, friends, or social roles further intensifies feelings of loneliness and emotional distress. Social isolation can lead to depression, anxiety, and a decline in mental health.

Another serious problem faced by elderly persons is neglect and abuse. Elder abuse can take various forms, including physical abuse, emotional abuse, financial exploitation, and neglect. In some cases, elderly persons are treated as burdens and denied proper care, respect, and attention. Financial abuse, such as misappropriation of property or savings, is particularly common. Fear, dependence, and lack of awareness often prevent elderly persons from reporting abuse or seeking help.

In addition to these four major problems, elderly persons also face challenges such as age-based discrimination, lack of legal awareness, and limited participation in social and political life. Ageism in employment and social attitudes marginalises older people and undermines their contributions to society. Technological changes also create difficulties, as many elderly persons struggle to adapt to digital systems used in banking, healthcare, and governance.

Addressing the problems of elderly persons requires a comprehensive and humane approach. Governments must strengthen social security systems, provide adequate pensions, and ensure accessible and affordable healthcare services. Community-based support systems, old-age homes, and day-care centres can help reduce social isolation. Legal frameworks and awareness programmes are essential to prevent and address elder abuse and protect the rights of elderly persons.

In conclusion, elderly persons experience multiple problems that affect their physical health, economic security, emotional well-being, and social dignity. Health-related issues, economic insecurity, social isolation, and neglect or abuse are four major challenges faced by the elderly. Ensuring a dignified and secure life for elderly persons is not only a social responsibility but also a fundamental human rights obligation. A caring and inclusive society must recognise, respect, and protect the rights of its ageing population.

Question 3: Examine the role of the Amnesty International in the protection of human rights.

Answer:

Amnesty International is one of the most prominent non-governmental organisations working for the protection and promotion of human rights across the world. Founded in 1961, Amnesty International has played a crucial role in highlighting human rights violations, mobilising global public opinion, and pressuring governments to uphold international human rights standards. As an independent and impartial organisation, Amnesty International works without affiliation to any government, political party, or ideology, which enhances its credibility and moral authority.

One of the primary roles of Amnesty International is to investigate and document human rights violations. The organisation conducts detailed research on cases of torture, arbitrary detention, enforced disappearances, extrajudicial killings, and restrictions on freedom of expression and association. Through fact-finding missions, interviews with victims, and analysis of legal and political conditions, Amnesty International produces reliable reports that expose abuses and bring them to international attention.

Amnesty International also plays a significant role in raising awareness about human rights issues. By publishing reports, organising campaigns, and using media platforms, the organisation educates the public about ongoing human rights violations and the importance of protecting human dignity. Its campaigns help transform individual cases of abuse into global concerns, encouraging people to stand in solidarity with victims of injustice.

Advocacy and campaigning constitute another important function of Amnesty International. The organisation actively campaigns to influence governments, international organisations, and policy-makers to change laws, policies, and practices that violate human rights. Through petitions, letter-writing campaigns, protests, and lobbying efforts, Amnesty International exerts moral and political pressure on authorities to comply with international human rights obligations.

Amnesty International has been particularly effective in campaigns against torture and the death penalty. It has consistently opposed the use of torture under any circumstances and has worked towards the abolition of capital punishment worldwide. Its sustained advocacy has contributed to the reduction in the number of countries practising the death penalty and to the adoption of international conventions prohibiting torture.

Another key role of Amnesty International is the protection of prisoners of conscience. The organisation defines prisoners of conscience as individuals who are imprisoned solely for their beliefs, opinions, religion, or peaceful expression, without advocating or using violence. Amnesty International campaigns for the immediate and unconditional release of such prisoners and provides them with international support and visibility.

Amnesty International also contributes to the development and strengthening of international human rights law. It actively participates in international forums and supports the adoption and implementation of human rights treaties and conventions. The organisation provides expert input to United Nations mechanisms, regional human rights bodies, and national governments, thereby shaping global human rights norms and standards.

A distinctive feature of Amnesty International is its reliance on global public participation. Millions of members and supporters across the world engage in human rights activism through local groups and national sections. This grassroots involvement strengthens the organisation’s campaigns and demonstrates the power of collective action in defending human rights.

Despite its achievements, Amnesty International faces certain challenges. Some governments accuse it of bias or interference in internal affairs, while others resist its recommendations. Limited access to conflict zones and resource constraints can also affect its work. However, Amnesty International continues to maintain its independence and commitment to impartial human rights advocacy.

In conclusion, Amnesty International plays a vital role in the protection of human rights through research, awareness-raising, advocacy, and international campaigning. By exposing abuses, supporting victims, and holding governments accountable, the organisation has significantly contributed to the advancement of human rights worldwide. Its work highlights the importance of global solidarity and moral responsibility in safeguarding human dignity and justice.

Question 4: Discuss the problem of child labour in India.

Answer:

Child labour is one of the most serious social and human rights problems in India. Despite constitutional safeguards, legal provisions, and various government initiatives, a large number of children in India are still engaged in economic activities that deprive them of education, health, and a dignified childhood. Child labour not only violates the basic rights of children but also hampers the social and economic development of the nation.

Child labour refers to the employment of children in work that is mentally, physically, socially, or morally harmful and interferes with their schooling. Children are often engaged in hazardous industries such as mining, construction, brick kilns, fireworks, carpet weaving, and domestic work. Many children are also employed in informal sectors like agriculture, street vending, and small workshops, where exploitation is widespread and regulation is weak.

Poverty is the primary cause of child labour in India. Families living in extreme poverty often depend on the income generated by their children for survival. Lack of employment opportunities for adults and low wages force parents to send their children to work. In such circumstances, education becomes a secondary priority, and children are pushed into the labour market at a very young age.

Another major factor contributing to child labour is the lack of access to quality education. Inadequate schooling facilities, poor infrastructure, shortage of teachers, and high dropout rates discourage children from continuing education. When education fails to attract or retain children, labour becomes an alternative. Social attitudes that undervalue education, especially for girls, further aggravate the problem.

Migration and urbanisation have also increased child labour in India. Migrant families moving from rural to urban areas in search of employment often lack access to education, housing, and social services. Children from migrant families are particularly vulnerable to exploitation and are frequently employed in informal sectors under harsh and unsafe conditions.

Child labour has severe consequences for the physical and mental development of children. Long working hours, unsafe working environments, and exposure to hazardous substances adversely affect children’s health. Malnutrition, injuries, chronic illnesses, and psychological trauma are common among working children. Deprivation of education limits their future opportunities and perpetuates the cycle of poverty and exploitation.

The Indian Constitution and legal framework provide protection against child labour. Article 24 of the Constitution prohibits the employment of children below the age of 14 years in hazardous industries. Laws such as the Child and Adolescent Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act and the Right to Education Act aim to eliminate child labour and ensure compulsory education. However, weak enforcement, lack of awareness, and socio-economic constraints limit their effectiveness.

The problem of child labour is also a violation of international human rights standards. India is a signatory to various international conventions that recognise the rights of children, including the right to education, protection from exploitation, and a safe childhood. Continued existence of child labour undermines these commitments and raises serious human rights concerns.

Addressing child labour in India requires a comprehensive approach. Poverty alleviation, employment generation for adults, access to quality education, and social awareness are essential for eliminating child labour. Effective implementation of laws, strict punishment for violators, and rehabilitation of rescued children are equally important. Community participation and support from civil society organisations can play a vital role in protecting children’s rights.

In conclusion, child labour in India is a complex problem rooted in poverty, inequality, lack of education, and social attitudes. It violates the fundamental rights of children and obstructs national development. Eliminating child labour is not only a legal and moral obligation but also a human rights imperative. A collective effort by the state, society, and international community is necessary to ensure that every child enjoys a safe, healthy, and dignified childhood.

Question 5: Prepare a note on the problem of loss of bio-diversity.

Answer:

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms found on Earth, including plants, animals, microorganisms, and the ecosystems in which they exist. It encompasses diversity at the genetic, species, and ecosystem levels. Biodiversity is essential for maintaining ecological balance and supporting life-sustaining processes such as food production, climate regulation, and nutrient cycling. However, in the contemporary period, the world is facing a serious problem of loss of biodiversity, which has emerged as a major environmental and human rights concern.

One of the primary causes of biodiversity loss is habitat destruction. Rapid urbanisation, industrialisation, deforestation, and agricultural expansion have led to large-scale destruction of natural habitats such as forests, wetlands, and grasslands. When natural habitats are destroyed or fragmented, many species lose their homes and sources of food, leading to population decline and extinction. Habitat loss is particularly severe in developing countries where economic development often takes place at the cost of environmental conservation.

Another significant factor contributing to the loss of biodiversity is overexploitation of natural resources. Unsustainable practices such as excessive logging, overfishing, hunting, and poaching have reduced the population of many species. The demand for wildlife products, timber, and marine resources has placed enormous pressure on ecosystems. Overexploitation not only threatens individual species but also disrupts entire ecological systems.

Pollution is another major cause of biodiversity loss. Air, water, and soil pollution adversely affect plants, animals, and microorganisms. Industrial waste, chemical pesticides, plastics, and untreated sewage contaminate ecosystems and harm living organisms. Aquatic ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to pollution, which leads to the death of fish and other aquatic species and affects the livelihoods of communities dependent on these resources.

Climate change has emerged as a serious threat to biodiversity in recent decades. Rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, melting glaciers, and extreme weather events alter natural habitats and disrupt ecological balance. Many species are unable to adapt quickly to changing climatic conditions, leading to migration, reduced reproduction, or extinction. Climate change also affects coral reefs, polar ecosystems, and biodiversity-rich regions, causing irreversible damage.

Invasive species also contribute to the loss of biodiversity. When non-native species are introduced into an ecosystem, they often outcompete native species for resources such as food and space. This leads to the decline or extinction of native species and disrupts ecological harmony. Human activities such as global trade and transportation have increased the spread of invasive species across regions.

The loss of biodiversity has serious consequences for human society. Biodiversity provides essential ecosystem services such as food, medicine, clean water, and climate regulation. The extinction of species reduces genetic diversity, which is crucial for agricultural resilience and medical research. Loss of biodiversity also threatens the livelihoods of indigenous and rural communities who depend directly on natural resources for survival.

From a human rights perspective, biodiversity loss affects the right to life, health, food, and a clean environment. Environmental degradation disproportionately impacts vulnerable and marginalised communities, increasing inequality and social injustice. Therefore, the problem of biodiversity loss is not only an environmental issue but also a human rights concern that requires urgent attention.

Addressing the problem of biodiversity loss requires coordinated efforts at local, national, and global levels. Conservation of natural habitats, sustainable use of resources, protection of endangered species, and strict enforcement of environmental laws are essential measures. Public awareness, community participation, and integration of environmental concerns into development planning can significantly contribute to biodiversity conservation.

In conclusion, the loss of biodiversity is a serious global problem resulting from habitat destruction, overexploitation, pollution, climate change, and invasive species. It threatens ecological balance, human well-being, and sustainable development. Protecting biodiversity is essential for preserving the natural heritage of the planet and ensuring the rights and survival of present and future generations. Effective conservation strategies and collective responsibility are crucial to address this pressing challenge.